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PUNCTUATION

Use a SEMICOLON

1. Between independent clauses not joined by coordinating conjunctions

(for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so)

Example

He promised to reform; a few days later he forgot everything.

2. Between independent clauses joined by a conjunctive adverb

Example

He promised to reform; however, a few days later he forgot everything.

3. Between items in a series containing internal punctuation

Example

Captain Zero, a television star; Harriet Smith, who writes fiction; and Mel Stevens,

a world-famous psychiatrist, meet for an hour every Thursday to discuss the

geopolitical situation.

4. Between independent clauses containing internal punctuation – even when the clauses are

joined by coordinating conjunctions.

Example

To engender self-confidence, we must help others; but to procure love, we must

please them.

Use a COLON

1. Before formally introducing a list (*An independent clause must precede the colon.)

Examples

I ordered the following supplies: potatoes, sugar, flour, eggs, and coffee.

I ordered these supplies: potatoes, sugar, flour, eggs, and coffee.

Theories which try to explain the secrets of fire walking fall into three categories:

physical, psychological, and religious.

Incorrect

I ordered: potatoes, sugar, flour, eggs, and coffee.

On a long ocean voyage be sure to take along: plenty of books, a deck of cards,

a chess set, and a warm blanket.

2. Between two independent clauses when the second explains or expands the first

Examples

The leaders made the final decision: the (The) earthquake victims would receive

food and medical supplies.

The sign was all too clear: "Do not swim in this area."

Here is our honest opinion: we (We) think you are a genius.

3. Before a formal appositive (*An independent clause must precede the colon)

Example

The reaction of the audience signified one overwhelming feeling: anger.

Incorrect

The reaction of the audience signified: anger.

4. Between hour and minute / chapter and verse (Bible)

Examples

At 4:01 p.m. the doors will be opened to the public.

You will find those words in Genesis 1: 14-17.

Use an APOSTROPHE

1. To show ownership (to form the possessive case of nouns)

Examples

One boy owns some hats

the boy’s hats

Two boys own some hats

two boys’ hats

One man owns some hats

the man’s hats

Two men own some hats

the men’s hats

2. To show joint ownership with nouns

Example

Nan and Ted own the same dogs

Nan and Ted’s dogs

3. To show individual ownership with nouns

Example



Nan and Ted each own different dogs

Nan’s and Ted’s dogs

4. To show ownership with indefinite pronouns

Examples

anybody's hats

everybody's hats

each's hats

NOTE:

Do not use an apostrophe to form the possessive case of the personal possessive pronoun its.

Example

Do use an apostrophe with its to mean it is or it has.

Incorrect

5. To form the plural of letters, numbers, and signs, and of words referred to as words

Examples

How many and’s are in the second paragraph?

Remember to cross all of the t’s.

Use PARENTHESES

1. To enclose interrupting elements that add information or identification

Examples

The NRA (National Rifle Association) has a strong lobby in Washington.

I walked right up to him (no one was with him at the time) and told him what

we had decided.

2. To enclose figures or letters when used for enumeration within a sentence

Example

Each essay will be judged on the basis of (a) its length, (b) its artistic merit,

and (c) its originality.

Use a DASH

To set off parenthetical matter

Example

Harvey’s latest purchase – a condominium on the beach – pleases
him greatly.

NOTE: UNLIKE PARENTHESES, WHICH MINIMIZE THE IMPORTANCE OF THE.

PARENTHETICAL MATERIAL, DASHES EMPHASIZE PARENTHETICAL

MATERIAL.

Notice the different emphasis in each sentence.

The human mind is, as Luther said, a factory busy with making idols.

The human mind is (as Luther said) a factory busy with making idols.

The human mind is - as Luther said - a factory busy with making idols.

Use ITALICS (underlining)

1. For words, letters, and figures referred to as such

Examples

The word unbreakable has three morphemes.

The most frequently used vowel is e.

2. For foreign, technical (including mathematical expressions), or unusual words and
phrases.

Examples

The short story began in media res.

An interrobang is a combination of a question mark and exclamation
point.

The definition of cool constantly evolves as the word is used by
different generations.

3. For titles of books, newspapers, magazines, journals, plays, movies, radio

programs, TV programs, long musical works, long poems, works of art, names

ships and airplanes

Examples

F. Scott Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby chronicles the 1920's in
America.

Newsweek recently ran an article on killer bees.

Use QUOTATION MARKS

1. To enclose titles of minor works: articles, essays, poems, songs, chapters of

books, short stories, episodes of radio/TV programs.

Examples

The front page of the newspaper sported an article titled “Trapped
Couple Lived Thirteen Days on Cookies.”

Who wrote “The Star Spangled Banner”?

2. To enclose words used ironically or where the term so-called could be inserted.

Examples

He's one of the “fiftysomething” crowd.

The five-year-old prepared a "gourmet" breakfast for his mother on
Mother's Day.

3. To enclose a direct quotation: a person's exact words

Example

He said, “You have won the lottery.”

NOTE: Do not use quotation marks to enclose indirect quotations.

Incorrect

He said that “I had won the lottery.”

Correct

He said that I had won the lottery.

NOTES FOR DIRECT QUOTATIONS:

1. Start the quotation with a capital letter.

2. Place commas and periods INSIDE the quotation marks.

3. Place semicolons and colons OUTSIDE the quotation marks.

4. Place question marks and exclamation marks INSIDE the quotation marks if the

quotation itself is a question or an exclamation.

5. Place question marks and exclamation marks OUTSIDE the quotation marks if the

quotation itself is NOT a question or exclamation.

USE SINGLE QUOTATION MARKS to enclose a quotation inside another quotation.

Examples

"Please stop saying, ‘I love you,’” he begged.

"I have just heard ‘Amazing Grace,’" she said.

If the quotation within another quotation is a question or an exclamation, place appropriate
punctuation next to the item concerned.